From A Canto Titled Mercury and written by Arias de Villalobos

Born in Extremadura, Arias de Villalobos (1568-1622) was a clergyman who emigrated to New Spain where he became a playwright for the viceroy-al court and celebrated author. While most of his work has disappeared, his epic poem Canto intitulado Mercurio remains as one his most popular cultural works in its depiction of the Spanish conquest. It was both historical and not, as it depicts Mexico-Tenochtitlan “from 1325 to the fall of the city,” Villalobos also “rebuilds a lost world through imagination.” (53)

The poem begins with Moctezuma making a pact with Cortés that originally seems peaceful but quickly leads to consequences: “. . . but the earth shakes/ & people cry an infernal howl . . .” (50). When Moctezuma goes to his chambers he comes face-to-face with a mighty tiger, which is described as being so frightening that it would terrify the bravest of men. The tiger speaks with Astaroth's voice and insults Moctezuma for surrendering his land and accepting a new religious law. Astaroth then prophesizes a bad omen: Moctezuma will die at the hands of a lower-cast native and the ritual dances and melodies of his people will be based on themes of captivity. Moctezuma is encouraged to fight Cortés and his men with violence: “fill the pool with blood!/ aim at their bodies!/ shoot . . . attack!/ & if you're lacking weapons/ kill them with your bare hands!” (52). Alekto, a spirit of the Fury who represents “unceasing anger,” leads Moctezuma to take his vengeance and accept his shame. Under this influence, Moctezuma and his people then reduce the enemy to strewn pieces and are comforted by the “soothing” words: “DEATH ANGER FIRE FRIGHT & THREAT” (53).

Known famously as Moctezuma II (c. 1466 - 29 June 1520), Moctezuma Xocoyotzin is considered the final emperor of the Aztec Empire, ruling from around 1502 to 1520. Historically, Moctezuma's reign is often met with disputed accounts as some sources describe him as an elitist and weak-willed ruler, while others herald him as a great conqueror. Regardless of these claims, Moctezuma's rule ended with the fall of the Aztec Empire as the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés and his men held Moctezuma hostage in his own palace after what had seemed like peaceful negotiations, leading to an uprising of the Aztec people. This conflict resulted in the death of Moctezuma and the eventual degeneration of Aztec power under Spanish rule. The circumstances surrounding Moctezuma's death are unknown, but a popular account given by Bernal Díaz del Castillo reports that Moctezuma was struck dead by a rock after trying to pacify his own people following their denunciation of him in favor of his brother.

Occurring between 1519 to 1521, the Spanish Empire infiltrated the Aztec Empire through a series of battles, alliances, and invasions, taking control of power in the region of Mexico. The most significant event occurring in this conquest was the invasion of Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec Empire. While this invasion resulted in the initial withdrawal of Spanish forces from Tenochtitlá, the death of Moctezuma and the subsequent illness and famine which followed allowed for the Spanish to reinfiltrate and conquer the city.

Astaroth is a male figure in demonology typically described as the Great Duke of Hell, forming part of the evil trinity with Beelzebub and Lucifer. The first literary account of Astaroth can be traced to the 15th century text The Book of Abramelin. Astaroth can also be found in Kabbalistic literature, ruling over evil spiritual forces known as qlippoth. In a section on Kabbalah in Spain in its poetry book, Peter Cole explains the development of Kabbalistic circles active around mid-thirteenth century, involved in a dualistic gnostic notion of good and evil, as well as the mythic descriptions of evil. He adds that Ya'akov HaKohen's translated poetry depicts symbolism “including magical or numerological permutations of the Divine Name and mention of the kelippot—“shards,” “shells,” or “husks” that embody the forces of evil in the world.” (Cole 93) The archdemon Astaroth is depicted in literature high up in the hierarchy of hell, who entices men through “laziness, self-doubt, and rationalized philosophies” among other things. In Villalobos's Canto, he appears as a 'mighty tiger' to Moctezuma with eyes filled with the fire of hell and rage against surrendering to the new rulers' gods and power.

A few significant choices within the form of the poem include:

• The spacing in the poem becomes slightly irregular in the last stanza. The words “chests,” “legs,” “arms,” and “hewed” are spread out, creating a pause for the imagery of body parts being scattered across the ground (53).
• Juxtaposition is used in the last couple lines in the poem between “soothing words” and “DEATH,” “ANGER,” “FIRE,” “FRIGHT,” AND “THREAT” to show Moctezuma's descent into madness and loss of humanity (53).
• The poem uses several Nahuatl words, which come from the language of the Uto-Aztecan family. A few examples of these words include macegual (lower-caste natives), teponaztle (sacred drum), and mitote (ritual dances), which are referenced in the death omen from Astaroth (53).

1. Cole, Peter., and Aminadav. Dykman. The Poetry of Kabbalah : Mystical Verse from the Jewish Tradition. 1st ed. New Haven, [CT]: Yale University Press, 2012. Print. The Margellos World Republic of Letters.
2. Rothenberg, Jerome, and Javier Taboada. The Serpent and the Fire: Poetries of the Americas from Origins to Present. University of California Press, 2024.